Financial Accounting vs Management Accounting

Management accounting is a field of accounting that analyzes and provides cost information to the internal management for the purposes of planning, controlling and decision making. Management accounting refers to accounting information developed for managers within an organization. CIMA (Chartered Institute of Management Accountants) defines Management accounting as â€Å"Management Accounting is the process of identification, measurement, accumulation, analysis, preparation, interpretation, and communication of information that used by management to plan, evaluate, and control within an entity and to assure appropriate use of an accountability for its resources†. This is the phase of accounting concerned with providing information to managers for use in planning and controlling operations and in decision making. Managerial accounting is concerned with providing information to managers i. e. people inside an organization who direct and control its operations. In contrast, financial accounting is concerned with providing information to stockholders, creditors, and others who are outside an organization. Managerial accounting provides the essential data with which organizations are actually run. Financial accounting provides the scorecard by which a company’s past performance is judged. Because it is manager oriented, any study of managerial accounting must be preceded by some understanding of what managers do, the information managers need, and the general business environment. The differences between management accounting and financial accounting include 1. Management accounting provides information to people within an organization while financial accounting is mainly for those outside it, such as shareholders 2. Financial accounting is required by law while management accounting is not. Specific standards and formats may be required for statutory accounts such as in the I. A. S International Accounting Standard within Europe. 3. Financial accounting covers the entire organization while management accounting may be concerned with particular products or cost centres. Introduction Financial accounting and management accounting both prepare and analyze financial data. However, certain aspects of these two fields are very different. This article discusses the various differences between financial accounting and management accounting. The differing characteristics to be discussed include the users of information, the types of information, regulatory oversight, and frequency of reporting. Users of Information Financial accounting and management accounting provide information to two different user groups. Financial accounting primarily provides information for external users of accounting data, such as investors and creditors. On the other hand, management accounting provides information for internal users of accounting data. Internal users include employees, managers, and executives of the company. Types of Information The type of information required by the different user groups also differs. External users primarily rely on financial information about the company. They analyze this information in conjunction with general economic information, such as information about the industry in which the company operates. External users focus on broad information that reveals the overall performance of the company as a whole. In addition, financial accounting only reports information on financial transactions that have occurred in the past. Internal users need to review financial information about the company, such as financial statement information. They also use non-financial information about the company, such as customer satisfaction levels and competitor data. Internal users focus on detailed information that reveals the performance of particular subunits of the company, such as divisions or departments. In addition, management accounting concentrates on past and present information, as well as the forecasting of future financial transactions. Regulatory Oversight. In order to protect public interest, financial accounting is regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). In contrast, management accounting is not regulated by any specific agencies. This is because the information provided by management accounting is intended for internal users only and is not available to the public. Therefore, since there is no public interest, there is no need to protect public interest regarding this information. Frequency of Reporting The focus of financial accounting is reporting on historical information. The information is reported periodically. It is often broken down into monthly, quarterly, and annual reporting periods. At a minimum, financial accounting information must be reported annually. On the contrary, management accounting information is reported continually. Internal users need to evaluate past, present, and potential future information in order to make decisions. Therefore, these users continuously need information in order to make the appropriate decisions.

Why Gsm Tech Is More Preferred Than Cdma Tech in Yemen

Research Proposal Why GSM Tech is more preferred than CDMA Tech in Yemen Prepared by: Khaled Al-Gahuri Prepared for: Dr. Murad Al-Nashmy Acknowledgement I am honored to prepare this research paper which titled â€Å"Why GSM Tech is more preferred than CDMA Tech in Yemen†. And I would like to pay my special thanks to Dr. Murad Abstract The cellular industry is in Yemen dominated by two technologies – Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).This paper will provide an overview of the two different technologies and will focus on why people in Yemen preferred to use the GSM technology rather than CDM technology A even though CDMA technology introduced after GSM with a more privileges. 1 Table of Content ? ? Acknowledgement †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 Abstract†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 ? Chapter 1: Introduction —————————————–? ? ? ? ? Background †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 Problem†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Objectives†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Significance of the Study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Scope of study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 ? Chapter 2: Literature Review ——————————————? ? ? ? ? Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Consumer Choice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Perceived Service Quality†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 Choice of Handset†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 Hypothesis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 ? Chapter 3: Methodology ——————————————? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Research Deign †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 Framework†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Population And Sampling†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Data Collection†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Data Analysis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 10 Time Schedule†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 15 2 Chapter 1 Background Introduction The mobile indust ry in Yemen is divided between the two technologies GSM and CDMA. While the earlier service providers had adopted the GSM technology, the new players have been using CDMA technology has notched up a significant share of the Yemen market.The number of subscriber’s mobile industry has increased significantly since 2001. The first company lunched in Yemen introduced the GSM technology which was the only choose for Yemenis people to grant, but in 2005 other company has been lunched by the government introduced the CDMA technology which provide a better services for the clients with privileges to overcome the GSM technology. After around five years a big number of people have subscribed with CDMA, but GSM was still demonstrated the market with a bigger number of subscribers until nowadays.It is necessary for us to understand the basic differentiation of the two technologies as they may have an impact on the subscribers. GSM stand for Global System for Mobile Communications, one of the leading digital cellular systems. It uses narrow band TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency. GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band.GSM was first introduced in 1991. As of the end of 1997, GSM service was available in more than 100 countries and has become the de facto standard in Europe and Asia. CDMA stand for Code-Division Multiple Access, a digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques. Unlike competing systems, such as GSM, that use TDMA, CDMA does not assign a specific frequency to each user. Instead, every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence.CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to conn ect at any given time, and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. 3 Problem Statement The tendency of choosing The GSM technology over the CDMA in Yemen is very obvious. Thus, there is a need to identify the factors that can influence the choice patterns of either GSM technology or CDMA technology as well as why consumers prefer to choose GSM rather than CDMA even though CDMA is has more privileges and uses advanced techniques.Objectives Our main objectives of this study are as following: To identify and analyze the factors that can influence the choice patterns of either GSM technology or CDMA technology. To investigate the relationship between those factors. To find out why GSM is more preferred than CDMA. Significance of the Study This research will help to recognize the factors that lead to the lack of use CDMA technology in Yemen as well as this study can contribute to the body of knowledge by examining the different variables and implement them. Scope of study The scope of this study is basically limited to the consumers o the mobile industry in Yemen. 4 Chapter 2 Introduction Literature Review This chapter will bring a clear idea about the factors that can influence consumer choice such as perceived services quality, choice of handset as well as international roaming and their relationship. In addition some previous researches will be included. Consumer Choice The GSM Association is an international organization founded in 1987, dedicated to providing, developing, and overseeing the worldwide wireless standard of GSM. CDMA was established earlier and thus has a bit more coverage than GSM.However GSM networks continue to make inroads in Yemen. There are camps on both sides that firmly believe either GSM or CDMA architecture is superior to the other, Richard (2009) stated that there is no clear winner in the CDMA and GSM it all depends on your needs. There are many factors that could influence on consumer choice patterns, different factors have different influence on consumer, and these factors should be taken into consideration in order to formulate consumer choice patterns. Mobile sector must focus on customer satisfaction as serious marketing strategies (Lim, and Widdows, 2006).Nadine (2001) examined that attitude of the respondents using cell phones was not influenced by either education or occupation and income. Haque (2007) suggested that coverage, service quality, data transfer speed, and choice of handset play a main role during the time to choose either GSM or CDMA technology. Chris (2006) noted that in recent years the telecommunications market has witnessed major developments, with rapid expansion in access to telecommunications networks and a surge in the number of available services and applications.While many factors have contributed to the transformation of the telecommunications industry, competition has played a key role in driving telecom industry to develop new techniques, to innovate and to offer new services. 5 With the advent of cellular phones doing double and triple duty as streaming video devices, podcast receivers and email devices, Simon (2007) Stated that speed in data transfer is important to those who use the phone for more than making calls. Other thing advertisement can take a place when choosing technology Kalpana (2006) found that advertisement play a dominant role in influencing the customers.Perceived Service Quality Perceived service quality defined as a global judgment or attitude relating to the superiority of the service and it’s the rank to which the technology provides key customer requirement and how reliable those requirement are delivered(NQRC,2001). Basically consumers are adapted to the services that either GSM or CDMA could provide Kumar (2005), in his study analyzed that, services plays a major role in the telecom industry are the most active and attractive.In addition the quality of service is a driving of choice Seth et al (2006), in his study analyzed that there is relative importance of service quality attributes and showed that responsiveness is the most importance dimension followed by reliability, customer perceived network quality, assurance, convenience. The development of a reliable and valid instrument for assessing customer perceived service quality for cellular mobile services. (Backlund and Holmqvist, 2006) pointed that customer choice is achieved through good qualitative and quantitative services.Customer choice normally can indicate to customer response to the state of satisfaction and customer opinion of satisfied condition (Oliver, 2003). Palkar (2004) proposed that perceived services is an important factor that has greater influence on costumer choice. (Serkan 2005) determined that the balance of power between service quality and customer satisfaction with an emphasis on these two constructs is the concept that is different from the view of customer. Zeithaml and Bitner, 2002, indicated that both service quality and customer satisfaction have some things in common.Furthermore, Fornell et. al. ,(1998) reported that satisfaction is a consequence of service quality. 6 Choice of handset Liu (2002) found that the choice of a cellular phone is characterized by two attitudes: attitude towards the mobile phone brand on one hand and attitude towards the network on the other. Samuvel (2002) observed that most of the respondents consider coverage area, quality of services are an important factors for selecting the either GSM or CDMA while majority of the respondents are considered that choice if handset is the most important factor.Kalus stated that If you travel a lot to foreign countries, then GSM phone is better for you. Also santos(2006) indicated that GSM phones work more widely across the world than do CDMA models. International Roaming This is when you connect to an overseas network and calls are routed via that network provider instead of your home provider. Johson(2002) defined roaming as extension of connectivity service in a location that is different from the home location where the service was registered. Roaming ensures that the wireless device is kept connected to the network, without losing the connection.Roaming allows mobile wireless customers to automatically make and receive voice calls, send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services when they are outside of the area covered by their provider's network regardless of their location. Forneil(2004) stated that roaming plays a major role in the quality of GSM/CDMA technology, Susan J. Campbell (2007) stated that there are number of different technology trends, but most significant is the rise of mobile roaming.Hypotheses The Hypotheses are developed based on Literature Review mentioned earlier to describe the relationship among these variables that influence on consumer choice. H1: There is positive/significant relationship between perceived services quality an d consumer choice. H2: There is positive/significant relationship between international roaming and consumer choice. H3: There is positive/significant relationship between the choice of handset and consumer choice. 7 Chapter 3 Methodology ————————————————————————————————————————-Source of Data The study undertaken to be mainly based on the primary data and secondary data. The primary data is collected directly from the target respondents through tructured questionnaire and personal interview. The secondary data for the study is collected from different sources such as technical and trade journals, articles, newspapers, magazines, internet, books, reports. RESEARCH DESIGN First and the most important phase in determining method of this research is designing phase. This phase should be given serious attention to make sure that the research can be done without mistakes.Designing includes choosing the best method for collecting, measuring, analyzing data. Quantitative method such as survey method has been used for collection data. Research Framework Perceive service quality Choice of Handset Choice of Technology International Roaming 8 Population and Sampling Research The population of this study is all the consumers who has cellular phone which a huge amount of number, in this case we use Exploratory and Random sampling to analyze data. ? Data Collection The data is collected randomly irrespective of the category of the people in the form of questionnaire and the sample size is 100 respondents.Because it is a pilot study and due to time constraint the sample size is small. ? Data Analysis From the questionnaires we have distributed we got the following results: Q1) which technology do you use? Technology GSM CDMA No. of respondents 78 22 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 GSM CDMA 9 Interpretation: Above data analysis shows that majority of the consumers that is approximately 78% are covered by GSM technology. Based on this result we trying to know why GSM is more preferred. Q2) Overall, how would you rate you both technologies? GSM CDMA EXCELLENT GOOD 40 25 18 22AVERAGE 13 20 FAIR 10 20 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 excellent Good Avg Fair GSM CDMA Interpretation: From the graphic it depict that GSM is the most excellent technology. 10 Q3) Rank the following factors which influenced you the most: Roaming QoS Choice of handset 92 8 DATA SPEED 32 68 Range of coverage 41 59 GSM CDMA 67 22 62 38 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 roaming Service handset coverage GSM CDMA Interpretation: Above data analysis shows that GSM is being preferred because of its services, the choice of handset and the strength of roaming. WhereCDMA is preferred because of its good range of coverage. 11 Q4) Rank the following Service which attracted you the most for tour choice either GSM or CDMA Brand GSM CDMA SMS Pack 60 40 Call rate 45 65 Internet 70 30 Other 67 33 70 60 50 40 GSM 30 20 10 0 SMS call rate Internet other CDMA Interpretation: from chart above it shows that GSM is more preferred from because of its aspects of the services. Where CDMA is preferred because of its call rate. 12 Q5) How satisfied are you with your choice of GSM/CDMA technology? Brand GSM CDMA Very satisfied 35 20 satisfied 60 30 Neutral 0 15 issatisfied 0 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 very satisfied satisfied Neutral dissatisfied GSM CDMA Interpretation: Above data analysis shows that the satisfaction rate of technology is leaded by GSM as not a single user of service is neutral or dissatisfy. In other hand CDMA seems to be good satisfied with zero dissatisfies but there are around 15 respondents who are neutral. 13 Conclusion As per my analysis I noticed that the main factors that makes GSM technology more prefe rred are the mobile choice of handset and the quality of service regardless the range of coverage and the price rate.Other thing I noticed that are the mobile choice of handset and the value of service has a strong relationship Conclusion of the topic is that maturity of customers is using GSM technology because of its good network roaming availability and quality of services and the wide choice of handset. Mostly customers have considered GSM is one of the best services provided in Yemen because other factors and efficient services. ? Time Schedule 15th February, 2012 Data Collection Problem Statement & Objectives Literature Review Methodology Whole report 30th February , 2012 13th March, 20th March, 2012 2012 1 April, 2012 ? ? ? ? 14 ? References 1. Jallet, Frederic, intelecommunications†,(http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do; jsessionid=236E2B6B45CF101465D540FD4401AEB9? 2. Debnath, Roma Mitra, â€Å"Benchmarking telecommunication service in Indiaâ₠¬ , 2008(http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do;jsessionid=236E2 B6B45CF101465D540FD4401AEB 3 Robins, Fread, â€Å"The marketing of 3G†, vol 21, no 6, 2008 http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do;jsessionid=236E2B6B45 CF101465D540FD4401AEB9? 4. Kalwani, Banumathy, â€Å"Consumer’s Attitude towards Cell phone Services†, 2006 . Fernandez, Fronnie, Understanding Dynamics in an Evolving 2007(http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do;jsessionid=208652 7F0757A565F9A6CBAC8800F658? 6. Seth et, Etal, â€Å"Managing the Customer Perceived Service Quality for Cellular MobileTelephone: an Empirical Investigation†, 2008(http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do;jsessionid=208652 7F0757A565F9A6CBAC8800F658? 7. Tecor, Jha, Understanding Mobile Phone Usage Pattern among CollegeGoers†,2008(http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do;jsessionid= 2086527F0757A565F9A6CBAC8800F 658? 15

Welcome to Ap Art History

WELCOME TO AP ART HISTORY!!! Greetings AP Art History Student! Welcome to your course! My name is Mrs. Crosier and I’m thrilled to have you as a student to work together to help you earn free college credit! An Advanced Placement (AP) course with FLVS is a rigorous, college-level learning experience. AP courses require a high level of commitment and are an opportunity to earn college credit based on a qualifying score on a national AP exam.A student should only be enrolled in an FLVS AP course if he/she plans to both prepare for and take the national AP exam in May, 2013. In fact, no AP credit will be issued until after May 2013 ( with the exception of students attending a public school in Leon, Dade, Broward, Palm Beach or Okeechobee County), once you have completed the course AND participated in the national AP Exam. To ensure this is clearly understood, you AND your parent must sign and date this document and return it to me.This form must be returned to me in order for you to move beyond your Grace Period. Again, it is vital to understand we WILL NOT issue your final grade until AFTER the AP Exam in May, 2013 and ALL Coursework is completed by May 1. Verification forms for exam participation will be distributed to students in January, 2013. If you do not plan to take the AP exam, please let me know immediately. You will begin this two semester course starting with artworks from prehistoric times to the 21st century.You can begin working in your course but you will not be activated until I meet and speak with you and your parent/guardian on the phone for a â€Å"welcome call. † This will be a brief 5-10 minute call to meet and review the welcome PowerPoint you viewed. If, however, you are no longer interested in taking this course online, please call or email me [email  protected] net and let me know and I will withdraw you without any consequence or penalty. For a brief, interactive orientation, please visit (Please be sure to copy and paste the link into a browser): http://www. lvs. net/quickstart I am available daily from 8-8. Please go to the appointment scheduler located under my name in the course or call me at 386-454-0325. In the event, I am with another student, please leave a message and I will return your call. I look forward to speaking to you and your parent or guardian and to having you as part of this class. We’re going to have a great Learning experience together! Mrs. Martha Crosier AP Art History Instructor Phone: 386-454-0325 (8-8) Email: [email  protected] net AP Exam Policy Acknowledgement and AP Credit PolicyWe acknowledge that I am required to take the May, 2013 AP Exam for this course AND will only at that time receive AP credit if I successfully complete the course and submit the signed Exam Verification form. I further acknowledge all work and exams for the course are due May 1, 2013. Student’s printed name: _____________________________________________ Student signature: ______ _______________________________________ Date ________________________ Parent/Guardian signature: _____________________________________________ Date ________________________

Audiovisual critical theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Audiovisual critical theory - Essay Example He has developed the modern society and in it he has replaced the authentic social life with his interpretation of representation. He has thus, written about the traced of this modern society. He also argued through his book that the social life history should be understood by the â€Å"decline of being into having, and having into appearing†. This is the history where the commodity is finally recognized as colonization of the modern social life. This is the overall idea of the degrading of the human life. Debord has used the term spectacle in his title which is also closely related to the confluence in the society of advance capitalism. The word has been specifically used in the sense to describe the mass media and the kinds of governments who have favored the phenomenon. In his book that followed Comments on the Society of the Spectacle, Debord mentioned the spectacle as the period coming to the existence in the 1920s. He introduced this period as the coming to the existence in which the modern techniques of advertising were introduced, more innovative techniques and ideas were initiated to being used in which the campaign of Edward Bernays for the industry of tobacco was keenly highlighted (Debord,  1998, p. 87). The spectacle is thus described as the image of the modern society where the relations between the commodities have taken place by the relations of the people amongst themselves. This society is the one in which the genuine activity is seen and identified with the spectacles. But the spectacle is not merely taken to be the collection of images; it is rather the relation of the people amongst each other which is reflected by the images. Throughout his analysis of the spectacle society, the writer has regarded that the quality of life is getting poorer. He highlights some of the major points that can be influenced in these aspects such as the lacking in authenticity, the effects on the human perceptions,

Philosophy 101 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Philosophy 101 - Essay Example Thus, he began to doubt his beliefs on sense perception, material objects and physical sciences, for these all depend on our senses, which are by nature, deceptive. Furthermore, he doubted mathematics, for the reason that there perhaps may be an evil deceiver that deceives him to fall into error. Herein, Descartes uses this evil deceiver in attaining his permanent truth. I quote: â€Å"Even though there may be a deceiver of some sort†¦ who bends all his efforts to keep me perpetually deceived, there can be no slightest doubt that I exist, since he deceives me; and let him deceive me as much as he will, he can never make me be nothing as long as I think that I am something† (Descartes 82). This is Descartes absolute and certain truth. For, inasmuch as he would doubt all the beliefs he has ever had, there is one thing, which he cannot doubt, i.e. that he exists. For to claim that he cannot tell the difference between a dream and reality, or to claim that an evil deceiver de ceives him to fall into error, is not possible without him existing. In order for doubting to take place, a doubter must exist. In order for Descartes to be deceived to fall into error, he must exist. Therefore, Descartes arrives at his foundational truth: â€Å"I exist.† Works Cited Descartes, R., 1960.

Can we apply Hobbes argument about the state of nature to Essay

Can we apply Hobbes argument about the state of nature to international relations - Essay Example In this regard, the state of nature considers men to be in a competition with each other for resources that include food, for example. As a result, they tend to distrust and fear one another thus instigating a pre-emptive attack due to the quest to maximise their own interests at the expense of other people. On the other hand, difference, emanates from the desire for natural equality and the fear factor that eventually leads to war. On this note, the state of nature suggests that, the alternative option for removing the contributory factors to conflict is to embrace the state by surrendering sovereignty to the Leviathan in order to enjoy security and order. According to Hobbes, the international sphere exists in a form of the state of nature (1985, p.37). This paper explores whether Hobbes argument about the state of nature can apply to international relations. While international relations emphasises a peaceful co-existence between sovereign states, the Hobbesian view focuses on the defensive character of states. This makes it difficult to apply the Hobbesian argument in international relations because; it discards the moral principles that guide the relations among states. Hobbes advances five conditions for the state of nature that includes equality, competition, and the existence of two types of people, non- universal egoism and uncertainty. With regard to equality, Hobbesian view reiterates that people possess almost equal mental and physical capabilities. As a result, those regarded as weak also have enough power either mental or physical to destroy the strongest. The competition caused by scarcity of resources also creates a situation where everyone grapples for the same unlimited resources. The Hobbesian view further associates the scarce resource with power since not everyone can amass power. In this sense, power is often a preserve for a few individuals in the society who tend to maximise it for their own self-interest (Hampton, 1987,

How to Create a Successful Healthcare Policy and Get It Implemented Assignment

How to Create a Successful Healthcare Policy and Get It Implemented - Assignment Example In creating or reforming the health sector, creating health policies is just one of the process towards ensuring its effectiveness and efficiency in tackling peoples’ health care problems and challenges. The second step is assessing the availability of resources necessary in the implementation of the health care policy; this is an essential process because it allows for planning on ways of acquiring other resources that are critical to the success of the process. Resources include both human and non-human; it is important to ensure that successful implementation of the policy requires qualified personnel in the healthcare sector, sufficient funding and reliable infrastructure. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the policy is important in making necessary adjustments to ensure that set goals and objectives are met as stipulated in the policy. Stakeholders play an important role in the successful implementation of the health policy; they play an oversight role, guiding in the implementation of steps planned. Stakeholders are also important in creating resources needed for implementing the set goals and objectives in the policy; the source of funds, create partnerships with the government and other interested agencies. At the same time, they are essential in setting policy benchmarks as well as help in the process of creating human capital required in the successful implementation of the plan. Every policy is set with the aim of achieving its documented objectives, however, failure to stick to the plan as outlined in the process can contribute to its failure. It is expected that there will be collaboration and consultations in the implementation process. When these processes are not present, the policy is always bound to fail (Mason 2012), when there is no line of command and authority control, the implementation lacks direction and hence fails to achieve its set objectives.  Ã‚   In addition, when there is a lack of resources and commitment from the government and other stakeholders, policy creation and successful implementation is always destined for failure.     

Tennesse Williams The Glass Menagerie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tennesse Williams The Glass Menagerie - Essay Example In Act One, Scene One, the stage setting is described as having a ‘dark, grim rear wall of the Wingfield tenement’. There are stage directions where the actors and actresses enter and exit the stage using the props like stairs and this is difficult or impossible to accomplish using an arena stage. (Williams 12).An arena stage is a central stage that has surrounding seats and this gives no leeway except to ascend or descend from the stage. Then the actor or actress has to sit down at the level of the audience, or walk all the way to the nearest dressing room. An arena stage is similar to a theater in the round, which has the audience seated on all sides of the performance stage. A thrust stage is most suited for this play because it allows the actors and actresses entrance and exit routes and help to make the play a realistic drama. In Act One, Scene One, the stage directions say that; ‘The scene is memory and is therefore non-realistic.’ (Williams 12). Amanda and Laura are seated at the dinner table behind the scrim to symbolize their need for privacy since they are eating. Williams highlights the unrealistic nature of the play by stating that; ‘Eating is done by gestures without food or utensils.’ (Williams 15). This play is also unusual in having a character, Tom, in the play, assume the multiple roles of being the narrator and stage director too. This makes the play realistic because the play is Tom’s testimony. Some characters are unrealistic in the play. In Act One, Scene Two, Amanda discovers that Laura has been skipping her typing class and deliberately deceiving her. Laura is an unrealistic dreamer. She fails to understand the importance of earning her stripes with a formal education and getting a relevant job to be self-supportive, if not contributing to the family household income. Tom is rooted in realism although his responses to the pressure are human and hints of escapism. Amanda

There is no hope of doing perfect research(griffiths,1998,p97) do yo Essay

There is no hope of doing perfect research(griffiths,1998,p97) do yo agree Discuss with detailed reference to at least two examples of qualative research in sc - Essay Example secular realm, people in the society desire for truth and justice and to attain the same there must be belief in attaining so and in there is belief there is hope. It would be wrong to say for example that Justices of the US Supreme Court to say they believe that there must be justice but they must not hope that just justice will be perfect. Given such perspective about hope, let us rephrase the question: Is there hope of doing perfect research? into â€Å" Is there positive optimism of doing a perfect research? This second statement seems to have taken a different meaning from the original.. That happened after using the word â€Å"hope† in a context where it could possibly be used. Proceeding therefore with the second, question, we could answer in the affirmative because the there is really positive optimism for perfect research. That seems to be an observable reality. If there is no hope or if there is no positive optimism for perfect research it would hard to believe the ever changing technology as a result of the hope of having a better product, hope of a better society. People have ideals which may include ideal for democracy, freedom and justice.. In the physical real, people want quality product and quality service. But one would readily object: how could there be a perfect research? One would say, â€Å"We are not in heaven, we are here on earth where the things the we have are imperfect. We commit errors, we bungle investigations, and we miscalculated the terrorist. We can even create something to prevent another hurricane from occurring. We cannot prevent people from dying despite the advances in technology. America could not contain the mind of the terrorist who planned the September 11 attacks. If there is perfect research we could have avoided all these things.† So those arguments appear too difficult to explain. But if we have to repeat the question again: â€Å"Is the there a positive optimism of doing a perfect research. then we could actually

Brain Drain in Louisiana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Brain Drain in Louisiana - Essay Example Of grave concern, then, was the emigration of those with scarce professional skills, like Doctors, Nurses, Engineers etc, who had been trained at considerable expense, in most cases, by means of highly subsidized tertiary educations or Government grants. (Cohen 1). The mere fact of the weak and poor society losing skilled people is a terrible occurrence. It plunge the society into a far deeper economic situation. The implications for the poor sending communities, is therefore, stark. (Dhananjayan 2). The factor driving brain drain emigration are not far fetched. The human nature always tend towards a better and more secured living conditions. Wherever such condition is not obtainable in a community, there is bound to be movement outwards, in search of a better environment. It is obvious, therefore, that inequalities in opportunities available to different societies or nations, is one primary factor at the root of brain drain emigration. Several decades back, 'brain drain' was a name reserved for citizens of poor developing nations moving into America and Europe. A US presidential candidate, Ross Perot, even once talked about a "giant sucking sound" made as American jobs went out to emigrants (Dhananjayan 2), but America seems to be having her own share of the phenomenon within its shores. According to a story on CBS News, Williams Frey, a demographer at the University of Michigan, studied population migration in Louisiana, long before Hurricane Katrina. He concluded that Louisiana has basically been a poster child for brain drain, especially among whites with college degrees (Katrina Accelerates). Brain drain has been seen as a growing trend in New Orleans and Louisiana over several decades now. It is observed that the opposite of the growth trends seen elsewhere in the New South is the case at Louisiana. The loss of skilled labor power began decades back, in the late 1980s, when, probably due to dwindling image outside, Louisiana keep failing to attract new residents. Basically, the Louisiana problem could be said to be due to a failing economy, unhealthy image and the resultant failure to attract in-migration of new residents (Katrina Accelerates). The economy of the city is already on a downward turn and its image battered, losing several of her best educated residents could lead to a vicious cycle. It definitely would further damage the 'sick' economy, tear the city's social fabric apart, and thus further creating a better excuse for the few, staying back, to emigrate and keeping new residents at bay. Brain drain sure does have a resounding effect, it takes away the good ones from a society, cutting out ideas and growth from the few ones left. Hurricane Katrina has further added to this scourge. According to experts, the health care industry was one of the very few industries experiencing growth in Louisiana and also the number one employer in the city. But, Hurricane Katrina almost obliterated the hospital, nursing homes, mental health systems and other health care institutions in the whole of New Orleans. These institutions employ thousands of people and many of them are already migrating for better opportunities. In the wake of Katrina, several competitors have been perfecting their strategies to better attract the numerous nurses, doctors and other health care workers stranded in the city. For instances, it is reported that, Joe Ann Clark, Executive Director of the

Organisation Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisation Business - Essay Example Another trait which effects emotional intelligence is the gender, as women tend to be more social and empathetic than men whereas men are more self-regulating. Therefore, both of the emotional approaches have different kind of effects on the work individuals do in professional fields (Arteche, et al. 2008, 1). This aspect is discussed further later. A research by Adriane Arteche, Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic, Adrian Furnham and John Crump was done on the traits involved in Emotional Intelligence. Through this research, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) exposed a four-factor fundamental structure of emotional intelligence which showed high internal dependability and were, without difficulty, interpretable as mood, intrapersonal, interpersonal and adaptability, in line with Bar On. Furthermore, inter-correlations supported a higher order factor in self-assessed EQ-i, as stated by numerous other researchers (Arteche, et al. 2008, 3). Emotionally Intelligent Leadership The next research whic h was looked upon was the research done by Wendy Gordon (2010, 72) that goes deeper on the professional and personal level of the emotional intelligence. In her article, she tells us about how to reduce cost in USAF (United States Air force) and American Express by using the traits of emotional intelligence. In the research, she explains that better Emotional Intelligence means better leadership qualities in a person. With the arrival of Emotional Intelligence evaluation apparatus, companies especially considering the USAF and American express, now have the luxury of generating a methodically validated summary, showing them what behaviors would make up an effectual leader in their meticulous corporation or industry. Researchers at the Center for Creative... This essay stresses that emotional Intelligence is a strengthening factor for any employee in an organization. It means to be in control of one’s emotions and therefore being focused on the goal and clear about one’s course of action, without being impulsive. Somebody who is emotionally intelligent and handles a situation effectively in both rough and calm times would prove to be a great asset to any organization. This report makes a conclusion that personality traits play a big role when it comes to professionalism and emotional intelligence. Many qualities linked to transformational and effective leadership are also positively correlated to emotional intelligence showing that people who are able to control their and others emotions are more likely to be great leaders. Furthermore, it can be concluded that it is the responsibility of managers to manage their subordinates’ emotions in order to minimize their negative effects e.g. negative feedback should be delivered in such a way that the employee remains motivated for improved performance in future and chances of counterproductive behavior are diminished. Although the personality traits of male and female employees vary, it is established that emotional intelligence in a working environment is not determined mainly by the gender of an employee, but by their interpersonal skills while working in a team. Therefore, emotional intelligenc e is essential quality for employees, in order to have a healthy and professional environment for every person working in any organization.

Skepticism Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Skepticism Philosophy Essay Skepticism: †¢ It comes from the Greek word skeptikoi which means â€Å"seekers† or â€Å"inquirers. † †¢ It refers to the critical attitude wherein a man questions different things including the well-known absolute truth or knowledge. †¢ Note that skepticism (philosophical that is) should be contrasted with philosophical dogmatism wherein the latter is the direct opposite of the former. Philosophical dogmatism refers to an attitude wherein a man believes to have absolute truth/knowledge (dogma,† meaning strict rules). Short History of Skepticism Classical Skepticism. Gorgias †¢ A Sophist who believed that nothing really exists. †¢ He lived from 483-376 B. C. (Leontini, Italy). He went to Athens to fulfill his mission as an ambassador. He was a student of Empedocles. †¢ In Greece, he was the mentor of Thucydides (author of the Peloponnesian War) and Isocrates. †¢ His issue with regard to the philosophy of existence can be understood by having a full grip on the logical contradiction. †¢ His whole idea of existence commences from the premise that nothing exists. Or, if something exists, it must come from another beginning. The origin of the existence of â€Å"something† is said to be unknowable. †¢ Also, Gorgias postulated that a â€Å"being† should come from another being. It is impossible for this being to come from nothing. †¢ We can regard Gorgias as a Sophist rather than a skeptic. It should be noted, however, that early skepticism came from the early perceived philosophy, and that is Stoicism. Philosophical Skepticism The following are the philosophical inquiries of the skeptics: 1. Epistemology †¢ Can man attain absolute knowledge? †¢ Where does the absolute knowledge come from? †¢ How does sense perception operate in the service of achieving knowledge? 2. Metaphysics †¢ What is/are the composition/s of the universe? †¢ What are the distinguishing features of human nature? †¢ Does God exist? 3. Ethics †¢ What should be the qualifying factors to assess human conduct? †¢ Is it possible for man to determine whether an action is morally right or wrong? 4. Metaphilosophy †¢ Is Philosophy significant to human life? †¢ What are the proper aims and goals of philosophical inquiry? Phyrro and Stoicism †¢ He is considered as the earliest philosophical skeptic in Western philosophy. He lived from 360 to 270 B. C. †¢ Some scholars find a political origin of Phyrro’s skepticism in this: on the theory that traumatic periods produce disillusionment and resignation, the souring and obsolescence of traditional beliefs, a tenacious relativism of beliefs, virtues, and habits that will not assign absolute superiority to any, and a need for new methods of coping in a hectic world. †¢ Taught that peace of mind was the highest end of life and that knowledge of truth was required to attain and maintain it. †¢ Phyrro accordingly sought truth, however for every philosophical question that the Stoic philosophy answers; it is being contradicted by several other schools of thought. †¢ What was worse was that each position had reasons and evidence to support itself and to subvert and refute its opponents. †¢ He gave up in despair and admitted to himself that he could not decide among them and did not know what was true. The Stoics were accused by the Greeks as proponents of dogmatism: †¢ It is the direct opposite of skepticism. †¢ A dogmatist is certain that knowledge is possible, because he is certain that he have some. †¢ A person is still a dogmatist even if he is not certain, but still asserts something to be true, whether on a hunch, an intuition, and a perceived plenitude of evidence, mystical impulses, blatant prejudice, or idiotic repetition. A. Academic Skepticism †¢ Asserts that at least some truths are completely unknowable. †¢ Cicero postulated that: â€Å"Nothing could be known except the position that nothing else could be known. † B. Empirical Skepticism †¢ An empirical skeptic is someone who refuses to accept certain kinds of claims without first subjecting them to a series of scientific investigation. †¢ Difference between an empirical skeptic and philosophical skeptic: a philosophical skeptic denies the very existence of knowledge while an empirical skeptic merely seeks for proof before accepting a claim. C. Scientific Skepticism †¢ A branch of empirical skepticism that addresses scientific claims. †¢ It uses scientific techniques in order to validate the acquired knowledge. D. Religious Skepticism †¢ It refers to incredulity towards faith. †¢ Religious skeptics based their claims according to immortality, providence and revelation. †¢ A religious skeptic is not necessarily an atheist or an agnostic. David Hume: †¢ He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. David was only two years old when his father died. †¢ He was fond of studying Mathematics, History, Ancient and Modern Philosophy and Science. †¢ His major philosophical works are: o A Treatise of Human Nature (which he completed from 1739-1740) o Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding (1748) o Concerning the Principles of Morals (1751) o Dialogues Concerning Religion (1779) †¢ He is also considered as one of the best British empiricists along with George Berkeley and John Locke. †¢ His philosophy was partially influenced by Adam Smith (his close friend) and Cicero (ancient philosopher). David Hume’s Skeptic View on Reality and Human Belief †¢ David Hume is one of the greatest skeptics in the history of Philosophy. He also influenced the development of the two philosophical schools of thought: empiricism and skepticism. Hume’s View on Reality †¢ According to Hume, there are two distinctions of mental concept, to wit, impressions and ideas. Impression refers to the direct, vivid, and forceful products of immediate experience. Ideas these are merely feeble copies of these original expressions. †¢ It should be emphasized that these two distinctions should be treated separately with each other. †¢ Hume’s View on Human Belief †¢ Relations of Ideas/Priori beliefs grounded on associations formed within the mind. †¢ Matters of Fact/Posteriori beliefs that claim to report the nature of existing things. _____________________________________________________________________________ GROUP FOUR: UTILITARIAN PHILOSOPHY Basic Concepts (Formal Definitions) †¢ Etymologically speaking, the word â€Å"utilitarianism† comes from the Latin word utilis, which means â€Å"useful. † †¢ In Ethics, utilitarianism is a doctrine that what is useful is good, and consequently, that the ethical value of conduct is determined by the utility of the result. †¢ Utilitarian philosophers believe that it is normal for human beings to perform activities which lead towards happiness (that is, to maximize happiness and to avoid pain). †¢ This theory is under the normative political theory. Normative Political Theory this theory asks a particular question as â€Å"what is ought to be† as compared to the question â€Å"what is† in political life. It is not confined on the setting or constructing moral theories, however, it analyzes the effects of the constructed moral theories in the political life of an individual and how it is being applied/practiced in the actual political arena. This approach of the normative political theory is spearheaded by Jeremy Bentham. He is a radical 19th century social reformer, who is apparently a utilitarian. †¢ Bentham argues that the nature of human beings is to obtain happiness (self-satisfaction) and to avoid pain. In this regard, the morally correct political decisions are based on the collective happiness of the society. †¢ This collective happiness may be characterized in the form of utility. This utility could be of any kind that would bring happiness to the society (i. e. property, advantage, opportunity, goods, services etc. ). †¢ Bentham did not provide theories or methods on how to attain social utility or maximization of happiness. According to him, the attainment of happiness depends on how an individual defines his/her happiness. In connection to this, every member of the society which comprises the whole society should consolidate their definition of happiness in order to obtain social utility. †¢ It should be emphasized that Bentham was focused on the interest of community/group. †¢ The supreme objective of moral action and the foundation on which all morality should be grounded is the achievement of the greatest happiness/satisfaction of the greater number. †¢ Nature of Utilitarianism †¢ Because this philosophy is greatly focused on the achievement (or maximization) of happiness, it doesn’t matter whether the result of the consequence is good or bad. Recall the famous maxim of Niccolo Machiavelli: â€Å"the end justifies the means. †  · Hedonism †¢ It refers to an ideology wherein happiness can be found between pleasure and pain. †¢ Utilitarian philosophers also use â€Å"hedonistic calculus† wherein they believe that a moralist could easily determine the unit of pleasure and of pain. O Bentham’s â€Å"hedonistic calculus† has similar concept with the theory of Epicurus. O The hedonistic calculus is used to determine the total amount of pleasure and pain of an individual. O Moral agent –person who conducts hedonistic calculus. Historical Traces of Utilitarian Philosophy †¢ It is believed that Utilitarian philosophy flourished in England. We can presuppose the fact that utilitarianism came from English philosophy. †¢ Some historians argued that Richard Cumberland originally perceived the idea of utilitarianism. He was an English philosopher and theologian (bishop of Peterborough). †¢ Afterwards, a British â€Å"moral sense† philosopher clearly defined the utilitarian philosophy. Francis Hutcheson did not only explain the philosophical perspective of utilitarianism which is â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers† but he also provided for a mechanism for calculating the appropriate consequences of the activities to attain such happiness. This mechanism is called â€Å"moral arithmetic. † †¢ Jeremy Bentham, a prominent figure in utilitarian philosophy, admitted that he found the principle of utility from the writings of the following 18th century thinkers: o Joseph Priestly a priest who was known for his discovery of â€Å"oxygen. † o Cesaria Beccaria an expert in legal matters (Italian legal theorist). o Claude-Adrien Helvetius author of a philosophy of â€Å"mere sensation. † †¢ John Gay (biblical scholar and philosopher) he considered God’s will as the greatest qualifying factor for virtue. Furthermore, he argued that God’s goodness is the source of human happiness. Utilitarian Philosophers 1. Jeremy Bentham (Developer of Utilitarian Philosophy) Life: †¢ Bentham was a legal theorist, linguist, social philosopher and political activist. †¢ He came from a wealthy family from England. †¢ Bentham was sent to Westminster School (one of the prestigious school in England) and Queen’s College Oxford. He was also a practicing lawyer; however, he showed an unwavering interest in philosophy. o He examined the philosophical works of David Hume, Helvetius and Beccaria. Eventually, he started to form his own idea of utilitarianism. o Bentham argued that the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure are the natural drives of human activity, as recognized by the â€Å"principle of utility. † 2. William Paley Life: †¢ Paley was born in July, 1743 (Peterborough, England). He attained his religious degree (Anglican priesthood) at Christ’ College in Cambridge. †¢ He became a tutor of Christ College three years after he graduated from the stated school. †¢ According to Paley, utilitarianism is a combination ofindividualistic hedonism (mean between pleasure and pain) and theological authoritarianism. 3. James Mill Life: †¢ Mill was born in April 6, 1773 (Forfarshire). †¢ He was a son of shoemaker in Montrose. He was sent to the University of Edinburgh in 1790 and his education was financed by Sir John Stuart. †¢ James Mill received his M. A. degree in Edinburgh. He was a full pledged preacher. However, Mill gradually lost his faith and decided to transfer in Scotland until John Stuart invited him to live in London. †¢ He became a writer of the Literary Journal in London. It can be said that the closure of the Literary Journal had made him write various essays, articles and other literary works such as his review on the history of Corn Laws and etc. †¢ He was the father of John Stuart Mill, another utilitarian philosopher. †¢ According to Mill, the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure are the two primary motivating forces behind human actions. †¢ He also justified the existence of the government in the society. He stated that the institution of the government exists to ensure these twin aims (maximization of pleasure and avoidance of pain) are fulfilled for the greatest number of people possible. Effects of Utilitarianism in Other Disciplines †¢ Utilitarian philosophy has been so important to the fields of politics, law and economics. †¢ Its theories are still relevant in the contemporary times especially in rendering important political decisions, maintenance of social stability (pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain) and etc. A. Law †¢ For instance, some viewed punishment as tantamount to â€Å"retributive theory. † This theory simply states that a criminal (i. e. convicted rapist, murderer or robber) should be punished to pay for his crime. †¢ According to the utilitarian philosophy, punishment is served not to facilitate retribution/retaliation but to reform the criminal and insulate the society from him. B. Politics †¢ v According to the utilitarian philosophers, the best form of government is democracy. Social contract, natural rights and natural law are the bases of government authority and importance of individual rights. †¢ v â€Å"Democracy† comes from the Greek word demos which means â€Å"people. † It coincides with the philosophical aim of utilitarian philosophy wherein the general interest of the people (and maximization of their happiness) should be the basis of the government’s political decisions. †¢ v Utilitarian philosophy is also known for its relative views on socio-political issues. †¢ According to this philosophy, a strong government should be needed to restrain the selfish interests of its subjects. As mentioned before, one of the main responsibilities of the government is to maintain the stability of political order. Based on this principle, the utilitarian argument is on the side of conservative/authoritarian position.  § Nazi Germany (Adolf Hitler)  § Soviet Union (Joseph Stalin)  § Cuba (Fidel Castro) †¢ On the other hand, William Godwin (founder of philosophical anarchism) had an optimistic view of human nature (parallel to the philosophical theory of John Locke with regard to human nature). According to him, the pursuit of greatest happiness may lead into â€Å"philosophical anarchism. † †¢ Philosophical anarchism Godwin emphasized that values must be deeply imbibed in every individual. Furthermore, he argued that sufficient supply of goods (economic resources) should be equally distributed to ensure that the economic needs of the society are properly fulfilled. He hoped that government authorities must formulate laws to equalize the unfair distribution of wealth. Furthermore, Godwin stated that the government should minimize its involvement to promote academic freedom. C. Economics. †¢ Early utilitarian philosophers argued that the government should not meddle on economic affairs of the society. †¢ Later on, they admitted that the government has a significant role in the economy. Jeremy Bentham’s Mode of Thinking Theory of Psychological Hedonism †¢ According to Bentham, human behavior can be explained by reference to the primary motives of pleasure and pain. †¢ Pleasure and pain it is believed that nature has placed mankind under the governance of these two motives. †¢ Utilitarian philosophers always ask questions involving â€Å"what we ought to do† and â€Å"what we shall do. † †¢ Bentham argued that the human individual is the basic unit of social sphere. An individual’s relation with others is unnecessary of being what he is. †¢ He defined â€Å"relation† as a fictitious reality. Community, on the other hand, refers to the sum of the interests of the individuals who composed it. †¢ However, there are some instances that the interests tend to clash with each other. Such occurrence diminishes the main concept of â€Å"community† (sum of the interests of the individuals). Bentham argued that the government and legislation should work together to harmonize the aforementioned conflict. †¢ Bentham’s Moral Theory The following are the characteristics of Bentham’s moral philosophy:  · Principle of utility †¢ It is synonymous to the â€Å"greatest happiness principle. † †¢ It concerns the interests of the people who are in question; it can be the whole community, an individual or a small portion of the group. †¢ Bentham enumerated the advantages of the principle, to wit: †¢ O The principle should not be consulted to metaphysics philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Thus, the main essence of the principle can be easily grasped. †¢ O The utilitarian principle offers objective criterion of right and wrong – application of hedonistic calculus  · Universal egoism or altruism †¢ Assuming that the said institutions (government and legislation) successfully harmonized the interests of every individual in the community, the people may tend to work altruistically to pursue the common good. †¢ O Altruism it refers to the unselfish concern to the general welfare of others. †¢ Determination of common interest †¢ Hedonistic Ethics †¢ Utilitarian ethics can be defined as an art in which man’s action is geared towards maximum quantity of happiness. Bentham’s Political Theory According to Jeremy Bentham, one can understand law and politics if he/she has a good grasp of human nature. On Liberty †¢ Bentham defined liberty as a freedom from any external control. A person can be considered as â€Å"free† if he/she is not under the influence of another person. †¢ In his theory on liberty, Bentham argued that there is no such thing as a â€Å"state of nature† and social contract. He postulated that the latter is only historical and novel literature. On Law †¢ Bentham viewed law as a restriction/limitation of liberty. It can be  considered as pain (a prima facie evil) to those whose freedom is restricted. †¢ The governing law within the society cannot be considered as a â€Å"natural law† because it is according to the will of the Sovereign (ruler). †¢ Bentham proposed that the law should be in accordance with the natural law, that is, it should be paralleled with the common interest of the people. †¢ The following are the positive functions of good laws (although Bentham still regarded laws as restriction to liberty):  § Good laws are essential to good government.  § Good laws are necessary to maintain social stability.  § Good laws develop and protect the people’s personal and material resources. On Rights †¢ Bentham’s view on rights can be rooted on his philosophy about natural law. According to Bentham, rights are produced by laws, and as affirmed before, laws can be attributed to the will of the Sovereign. †¢ Socio-political organization must be formed in order for these two to exist. †¢ Bentham related his view on the social contract theory with the existence and use of rights. According to him, it is impossible that rights exist before the establishment of the government. †¢ According to Jeremy Bentham, the theory of social contract is impossible (if not historical) because in order for the said contract to bind, there must be an established government to enforce such contract. †¢  § In reverse, the government must exist before the definition of different rights. This would again, lead into the issue with regard to law and liberty (where the Sovereign dictates the amount of liberty and rights that should be given to the people). John Stuart Mill’s Mode of Thinking Moral Theory †¢ J. S.  Mill’s two distinct approaches to moral theory: †¢ Intuitive Approach knowledge is attained without having an appeal to experience. †¢ Inductive Approach knowledge is gained through observation and experience. J. S. Mill’s Utilitarian Philosophy †¢ Mill believed that actions are right if they tend to promote happiness and wrong if they tend to deliver the opposite of it. †¢ For him, happiness can be associated with intellectual and sensual pleasure. He also stated that everything we desire can be considered as happiness. The following are some of the examples of happiness: †¢ Virtue  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Love of money †¢ Power †¢ Fame †¢ He also enumerated two kinds of motivation: †¢ External Motivation this arises from hope of pleasing or fear of displeasing God and other humans. †¢ Internal Motivation this arises from duty. †¢ Duty it refers to the subjective feeling which develops through experience. Furthermore, humans have an instinctive feeling of unity which guides the development of duty towards greater happiness. Mill’s Proof of the Principle of Utility:  · The only way to prove that general happiness is desirable is to show that people actually desire it.  § For instance, if X is the only thing desired, then X is the only thing that ought to be desired. General happiness is the thing desired. On Justice †¢ Apparently, J. S. Mill’s concept of justice is paralleled to the utilitarian philosophy. †¢ There are two essential elements on justice, to wit: †¢ Punishment it is a combination of social sympathy and vengeance †¢ Violation of someone’s rights infringement of rights. †¢ There are disputes in the notion of justice when examining theories of punishments, fair distribution of wealth and etc.  ¦ Political and Social Philosophy †¢ On Individuality J. S. Mill prescribed two criteria to determine the best kind of individual, to wit: †¢ Someone who is individually responsible for his own beliefs and actions. †¢ Someone who will not only be happy in his own case but will be concerned with and contribute to the happiness of others. †¢ Social Institutions that Contribute to Individuality: †¢ Free and uncensored debate. †¢ J. S. Mill regarded liberty as a fundamental human right. †¢ Democracy and representative governments encourage freedom and speech.